Reliability And Validity Assessment

Reliability And Validity Assessment What forms of reliability and validity do Grogan et al. (2000) establish for their patient satisfaction questionnaire (PSQ) measure? Briefly (one paragraph each) review the forms established. 1) Grogan et al.s (2000) chose an internal reliability to check for the consistency or inconsistency of their inter-subscales.   They performed Cronbachs alpha analysis to measure the correlation of each subscales on the general satisfaction subscale. The results showed a high level of correlation coefficient, which range between .74-.95, indicating that the subscales are internally reliable. Using internal reliability (Cronbachs alpha) is efficient and most widely used, however, the expression of its result could only be in terms of consistency and inconsistency. Moreover, the Cronbachs alpha allows items to be discarded from the analysis just to get a better alpha value (Vehkalnti, 2004). Furthermore, the present result showed a strong alpha value of doctor subscale (.95), therefore, it is reasonable to exclude doctor subscale from the five-factor domain, since it is very similar to the general satisfaction subscale. 2) Grogan et al. (2000) chose an internal validity way of assessment (focusing on the inference from the cause and effect of a variable on another variable). Grogan et al. used a construct validity test by using the Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA), the Pearsons product moment correlation (PPMC), and the Analysis of Covariance (ANOVA). The CFA was used to identify the approximate closeness of the 40 items to fit on the appropriate factor of the five-factor model (doctors, nurses, access, appointments, and facilities), which was suggested to embody patients satisfaction. The result showed a low value of   measure and high value of non-normed fit index (NNFI), which indicated that the items were having a good fit with the five-factor model. The PPMC test was used to look at the correlation of the subscale on the general satisfaction subscale. The result showed a positive significant correlation, which means ANOVA was used to compare the five different subgroups (patients divided ac cording to age) on the 46-items satisfaction scores. The results showed a significant difference of age group, with a greater satisfaction of older patients on the service provision, than younger patients. Construct validity is widely use because its relevant and clear measurements, but the present study did not measure a low correlation scores of items to indicate that the items were irrelevant. Moreover, construct validity is also subjective (in terms of judging the items, where the researchers believe that the items measure what they suppose to measure). Also briefly review other forms that might be established and how this might be achieved. 1) Test-retest reliability might be another good way to test for reliability of items measurements. This can be done by giving the questionnaire to the same respondents (patients) at different occasions, preferably three months after the initial test (Kline, 1993). The correlation of scores between the two tests can be compared. If the correlation coefficient is high, this means that the questionnaire (the subscale items) are reliable and consistence. This can be done by analysing the Cronbachs alpha value, which needs to be greater than .70 to be reliable but not greater than 1 (preferably not greater than .95). Moreover, test-retest should not only be carried out to the patients who had full respondent rates but also to those who had partially respondent rates (17% of the patients), just to check the presence of any specific group of patients that might think the questionnaire was not reliable to them. 2) Alternate-form of reliability can be used to assess reliability of the items, which can be done by using a different wording for each of the items (but having the same meaning) to measure the patients satisfaction based on the five-factor dimensions. According to Litwin (1995), the items created should not be identical but similar to each other, and the test should be his should be given to the same patients at different times. The correlation between their scores will show the reliability of the measurement of the questionnaire. By looking at Cronbachs alpha, high correlation of the items indicates high consistency of measurement. 3) Interobserver reliability is a method that can be used to find how well the inter-subscale is (Litwin, 1995), which measures how the five-factor domains agree with the 46-items questionnaire, by allow the professionals from each domains (such as the doctors, nurse, people who responsible for the environment factor, people responsible for the access factor, and people who are responsible to provide the facilities) to answer the questionnaire to assess their own satisfaction of the service provision. The data can be analysed by using Pearsons correlation to find out the correlation coefficient of the items and the satisfaction. High correlation indicates higher reliability of the subscale. 4) External ways of assessing the validity would be good to mentioned, in which the inter-subscale can be generalized across different patients, places and times. This can be achieved by doing a sampling model and proximal similarity model approaches, in which the questionnaire is first distributed to a sample population, then to its nearby population, and lastly to the outside population. The analysis of scores from these populations can be done by using ANOVA, and the significant correlation can be revealed. If their correlation is significant (p 5) Criterion validity is a good way of analysing the researchs validity as poor criterion tests would lead to inefficient technique of measurement. It has two major forms: predictive validity and concurrent validity. The predictive validity can be applied to find out how well the service of general practitioners could predict the patients satisfaction in the future. This can be done by asking the five domain factors (doctors, nurses, etc) and the patients to fill in the questionnaire separately. Then, the scores will be calculated by factor analysis (CFA) to see if the domain factors fit with five-factor model and by the PPMC to see the correlation on satisfaction. If the domains score fits with the model and have high correlation coefficient, this could predict that the patients score would also be similar. In contrast, concurrent validity cannot be applied because it could not be compared to the gold-standard questionnaire of patients satisfaction as it was none. 6) Content validity can be addressed in terms of finding how adequate the items are to reflect its domain. This can be examined by using CFA, in which it is to find the proximate knowledge of the items adequacy (i.e. to know which specific five-factor domain was the item belongs to). 7) Method bias to measure the present of any biased items in the questionnaire. This can be done by using logistic regression. The items are considered to be biased if they have characteristics that only allow the respondent to give a certain answers, bias to the aim of the study. REFERENCES Carmines, E. G. Richard, A. Z. (1979). Reliability and validity assessment. London: Sage. Grogan, S., Conner, M., Norman, P., Porter, I. (2000). Validation of a questionnaire measuring patient satisfaction with general practitioner services. Quality in Health Care, 9, 210-215. Kane, T. M. (2001). Current concerns in validity theory. Journal of Educational Measurement, 38(4), 319-342. Kerlinger, F. N. (1986). Foundations of behavioural research. London: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Kline, P. (1986).   A handbook of test construction.   New York: Methuen. Kline, P. (1993). The handbook of psychological testing. New York: Routledge. Litwin, M. S. (1995). How to measure survey reliability and validity. London: Sage. Loewenthal, K. M. (2001). An introduction to psychological tests and scales. Hove: Psychology press . Rubin, H. R., Gandek, B., Rogers, W. H. (1993. Patients’ ratings of outpatient visits in different practice settings: Results from the medical outcomes study. Journal of the American Medical Association, 270, 835-840. Vehkalahti, K. (2000) Reliability of Measurement Scales. Retrived November 18, 2009, from  http://ethesis.helsinki.fi/julkaisut/val/tilas/vk/vehkalahti/

Dukwane’s deliverance Essay

Being different is not always bad. It can as well mean to be capable of doing something others wouldn’t have done, to have a dream of becoming something that extends beyond your social environment. But it can be a complicated road to achieving this dream and you can meet different obstacles that need to be overcome. Sometimes deliverance is the answer. This is the situation presented in the short story â€Å"Dukwane’s deliverance†, written by Neil Ramsorrum, where the boy, Dukwane, looses the ability to walk while having a plan on attending Cambridge University. He has to deal with the fact that he is a black teenage, who lives in a society where most people are white and despite that he is a cripple as well. The main theme is reflected in this confrontation with difficulties, and tells never to give up on your dreams. The protagonist Dukwane is a black teenager, who lives with his father and mother in Camden. His family are not particularly wealthy, which is indicated by the fact that he works six shifts a week in a non-fancy fast-food restaurant. Another indication of this is the father’s choice of occupation, â€Å"As he looked at his father sat there, his bottom shirt button open and exposing his belly overhanging his trousers, he felt a sense of sadness, but also a determination to be more†. Dukwane wants to be more than his father, who is overweight and sits in front of the television all day. This ambition is a characteristic thing about him. Dukwane is not like other people in his social environment. He is an intelligent teenager, who is going to attend Cambridge University, which you can argue is an uncommon decision among his friends and family. Dukwane’s friend, Jermaine, questions Dukwane’s decision. â€Å"Well, they are all loaded, and white, I heard you get the cane from your teachers if you don’t do your work. And the older guys are gay and make the younger ones do weird shit†. He presents some negative prejudices about the university. He doesn’t think it is a place for him and wonders why he wants to attend. However Dukwane is determined to attend Cambridge University and later on becoming a politician just like Barak Obama, his big idol. Dukwane is furthermore a very courageous teenager who wants to do the right thing. â€Å"Dukwane gets up first, his hand raised to try and calm the gang of four, instinctively he places his body between the kid and his pursers†. He chooses to protect the child from getting caught and  ends up being stabbed himself. â€Å"You always do the right thing†, is what Jermaine said afterwards and even after the suggestion of revenge Dukwane does the right thing and refuses. But despite being different he is as well a part of the social environment. â€Å"†Melones hugos! Nice,† said Dukwane in what he imagined was a Spanish accent. â€Å"That’s all you think about.†Ã¢â‚¬  His use of colloquial language indicates that he can act as the others when the situation comes. The story is told with a third person narrator, who has a limited omniscient point of view. This means that the reader sees the events and other characters from Dukwane’s point of view. This way of telling a story involves the reader more than an â€Å"all knowing† third person narrator by giving the narrator an identity and makes it more interesting for the reader because everything becomes possible when the narrator isn’t â€Å"all knowing†. You can other than that say that the reader is involved due the knowledge of Dukwane’s thoughts and feelings. â€Å"He hears the sound after he feels it. Almost like the release of air, his body no longer in his control, falling to the pavement again. He feels the blood but cannot lift his head to see it. All he can see is the blur of neon fading†. The narrator has a limited point of view, and therefore the reader has a limited insight, which creates intensity and therefore becomes interesting. Another thing that creates this intensity is the change in tense. The scene where the quotation is chosen from is in the present tense, whereas the rest of the story is in the present tense. The author’s choice of using this tense combined with short sentences separated by commas and mimicking sudden motion creates a vivid setting, where the reader is involved. This leads to the setting of the short story. Dukwane lives as said in a less wealthy environment just outside London and there are different indications that tell about this environment. The social setting is mostly conveyed through the use of social- and class markers and the colloquial language, which Dukwane and his friends use. First of all there is the non-fancy restaurant, where the customers aren’t taken that serious. â€Å"†Pretty much. Except when I’m thinking about ass. You should try it.  £2.99, boss†Ã¢â‚¬ , here Jermaine is addressing Dukwane, but in the last  sentence he addresses a costumer. Usually the focus is at the costumer when you are at work in order to show your manners. His action and language indicates that they are a part of the lower social class, where manners aren’t very important. Another class marker is the hospital Dukwane is in. â€Å"Dukwane turned on the TV console above his bed.  £3.50 per day to watch the BBC† You don’t usually pay money for watching TV at a hospital, and it is totally absurd in comparison to the Danish hospitals, so the hospital isn’t fancy. Furthermore you can say that the environment is multicultural. â€Å"You know the Bengalis my cousin Frank hangs out with?† The fact that the protagonist himself is black, and that there are people from Bangladesh indicates that the area is multicultural. An interesting thing about the setting is that it also reflects Dukwane’s mood and the atmosphere. â€Å"As he stepped out onto Yorks Way, the sun was setting over Kings Cross in the distance, a crimson candyfloss sky broken by a dozen cranes all busy building his city.† He is happy that he got into Cambridge and the beautiful sunset and candyfloss sky create an atmosphere and reflect his mood. Moreover there is a contrast between he metallic machines and the fluffy candyfloss sky, which distinguish between the magical unrealistic sky and the rough capability and power of the cranes. The setting shows the distinction between what Dukwane already has and what he searches for, from the less wealthy environment to the large city of London. The theme of the short story is that you shouldn’t give up your dream despite the obstacles that can occur on your way to achieving it. â€Å"You are going to do what you always wanted to do. Do you hear†, â€Å"By your wits and sheer persistence. This is what makes us rise above other men, it is how we face adversity; how we challenge those who hold us back, how we make real our dream†. This is what the imaginary Barack Obama said to Dukwane, when he was given morphine to ease his pain. This quotation reflects the main theme of the story with precision. The short story â€Å"Dukwane’s deliverance† is about a bright black teenage boy, who is admitted to Cambridge University but unfortunately becomes paralyzed in his legs. He wants to be more than his father; he wants to break the social heritage in a multicultural area where people aren’t particularly wealthy, which is reflected in the social setting and the colloquial language. The setting shows as well this distinction between the two environments and what Dukwane has and wants to achieve. Nothing will stop him from achieving his dream neither as a poor black man nor a cripple.

Essay on Pros/Cons of Abortion - 2613 Words

Pros and Cons of Abortion Abortion is a very controversial subject that has been continually argued over for the past few years and probably many years to come. The main controversy is should abortion be legalized? First before we get into the many sides of abortion we must first define abortion. Abortion is the destruction of the fetus or unborn child while the child is still in the mother’s womb. This can be done by almost anyone from the mother herself to back alley abortions and even to abortions specialized clinics set up for this purpose. There are two sides to this abortion topic the PRO-LIFE which is those who are against abortion altogether and the PRO- CHOICE or those who believe it is the woman’s right to choose if she wants to†¦show more content†¦We even see the same thing in the abortion experience. When a person becomes pregnant because of rape or incest there is a permanent symbol of the rape, at least until it is aborted. Women who have had abortions fear being rejected by God and loved ones. It is a very traumatic experience which takes time to heal. Pro-life activist feel that in society today, abortion is becoming the solution to carelessness. Abortion does nothing to help the rape victims, and that is the problem they are trying to address in the first place. Instead abortion encourages the victim to vent their anger out on others. Pro-life also believes that childbirth on the other hand can be a victory. For those victims who chose childbirth over abortion it can be a triumph. The choice can show that the victim is not going to let rape destroy her life. When the needs of a pregnant victim are closely examined it can be shown that abortion is not the answer and is in fact only worsening the problem. But the worst strain abortion has on the victim is mental strain. Many victims become confused and overwhelmed by feelings they thought they would never have, and dont know what to do. After having an abortion victims thought they had solved the p roblem, but in fact they had really just started a whole new one. Many victims begin thinking there is something wrong with them and begin to doubt themselves in situations that they would normally be sure ofShow MoreRelatedPros And Cons Of Abortion1413 Words   |  6 Pagesevident that the topic of abortion is very controversial. Many people have been asking themselves the same question for many years now, do you think abortion is ethical? Abortion has been a heated argument amongst citizens, political activists, and several religions all across the world. Those who are against abortion are known as pro-life and argue that abortion is wrong because it kills human life. On the other hand, there are people who are in favor of abortion are known as pro-choice. They believeRead MoreThe Pros And Cons Of Abortion800 Words   |  4 Pagesimportant to critically think out the whole situation. 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The majority of us are Christians or are brought up in that kind of ambiance which means that as small children we were taught values that are based on the bible such as that famous phrase â€Å"Thou shall not kill†. This phrase relates to this topic because an abortion is the murder of a human being.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  A 52% of women getting abortions performed on them areRead MoreThe Pros And Cons Of Abortion946 Words   |  4 PagesAbortion is a highly controversial topic that has been debated for years. There are two main categories that people generally fall into when discussing abortions. These categories are Pro-Choice and Pro-Life. I, myself fall into the Pro-Choice category. I believe that woman should be able to choose what is best for themselves, and should not have to jump religious and politic hurdles to do so. Many people that believe in Pro-Life, do so for religious reasons. I do not believe in the mixing of religionRead MoreThe Pros And Cons Of Abortion924 Words   |  4 PagesAbortion is a rather sensitive topic that carries various and strong personal opinions. The first question is what is an abortion? Abortion is the termination of a pregnancy by removing or expelling the fetus or embryo from the uterus before it is ready for birth. It has become one of th e most controversial arguments in the world having to decide between pro-choice or pro-life. Religious conservatives side with the opinion that being pro-choice is a crime and a sin. Juxtaposed to the right toRead MoreEssay Pros and Cons of Abortion3507 Words   |  15 PagesPros and Cons of Abortion Should a list of pros and cons of abortion really be necessary for Christians...or human beings for that matter? I mean, have we really reached a point where we cannot tell that abortion is murderous no matter how you color it or try to paint it as compassionate? Apparently so. 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Thomas Paine And The Declaration Of Independence - 1111 Words

Trying to convince the Continental Congress to declare independence from Britain wasn’t easy, but an inspirational author ,Thomas Paine, wrote a book that made it all possible. Conflict between the American colonists and Britain began April of 1775. They wanted their natural rights back from Britain and King George III.They encountered many new taxes that were putt on them like, The Tea and Paper Act where King George taxed the colonists on all tea and paper products.The war took place and the Continental Congress encountered a vote on whether they should fight and declare for independence or not. They encountered many different states not wanting to commence a war and dictate for independence. Then Thomas Paine took part. On February 4, 1776 â€Å"Common Sense† was written to tell people about how we should fight against the unjust ways of King George III and the British parliament. He exchanged words of encouragement to the colonists and the Continental Congress. Then, The Declaration Of Independence, was born. Thomas Paine was an English, American writer, political activist, philosopher, and political theorist. He was the inspiration for independence. Thomas Paine was well known to the American colonies during the time of the American Revolution.While exploring the harsh times of the American Revolution, He wrote inspirational pamphlets about the horrible times of the American Revolution, including â€Å"The American Crisis,† and â€Å"Common Sense,† They were both written to discussShow MoreRelatedThe Declaration Of Independence And By Thomas Paine865 Words   |  4 PagesThat document is titled The Declaration of Independence and was written and released July 4, 1766 in Philadelphia which contained 56 signatures from each of the colonies. It has also been brought to our attention that a man by the name of Thomas Paine who is deeply influenced by the Enlightenment has questioned the lawfulness of the British monarchy and has published a 48 page radical pamphlet named Common Sense which has convinced many colonists that declaring independence from Britain is the rightRead MoreThe Ideas Of The Enlightenment, By Thomas Paine And The Declaration Of Independence767 Words   |  4 Pagesas defined in Thomas Paine’s Common Sense, can be broadly defined is the movement towards reason and individualism rather than tradition. The text, by Thomas Paine, challenged the principles of liberty, equality, and justice. Thomas Paine was a revolutionary thinker who used Enlightenment ideology as a platform to persuade towards the founding of an independant America, and towards the founding of the Declaration of Independence.   The Declaration of Independence, written by Thomas Jefferson and adoptedRead MoreThe Pursuit Of Happiness By Thomas Paine And Declaration Of Independence975 Words   |  4 Pagesgain coming. A â€Å"bad change† is where one have to forcefully or unwillingly move ahead in life and where there is no gain or possible loss. When bad changes become unbearable and unfair, it starts revolution. Common Sense by Thomas Paine and Declaration of Independence by Thomas Jefferson plays major contribution in American Revolution which made common men realize true color of selfish and unfair monarchy system of Britain. A revolution occurs when a king or government is misusing their power andRead MoreCommon Sense Vs. Declaration Of Independence957 Words   |  4 PagesCommon Sense v. Declaration of Independence Common Sense written by Thomas Paine in January of 1776, enlightened its readers and ignited the colonists towards the American Revolution. Common Sense was the first document that established a suggestion towards a constitutional form of government. The foundation of the main points in Common Sense were the upbringing of the Declaration of Independence. The Declaration of Independence was written by Thomas Jefferson in July of 1776 approximately 7 monthsRead MoreCommon Sense By Thomas Paine992 Words   |  4 Pageswhat it is today. Common Sense by Thomas Paine was inspiring to many American colonists as it was persuasive in showing how the colonists should have their own independence. Paine appealed the average citizen’s rationale, hence the title Common Sense. Paine’s pamphlet illustrates the importance of independence, and argues that colonial life under British rule was detrimental to America’s potential to become prosperous. In a fairly lengthy, but reada ble style, Paine discusses the differences betweenRead MoreThe Reasons Behind The Writing Of The Declaration Of Independence896 Words   |  4 PagesWriting of the Declaration of Independence There were several events that led up to the writing and publication of the Declaration of Independence. The colonists did not understand why they were being taxed on items such as stamps and tea which was extremely essential to the colonists at this time. The phrase â€Å"taxation without representation† was used by the colonists to show their outrage with these taxes from England. They set out to rebel and started the American Revolution. Thomas Paine contributedRead MoreThomas Paine Common Sense Analysis1052 Words   |  5 Pageswriting by examining â€Å"The Declaration of Independence† and Thomas Paine’s â€Å"Common Sense.† Basically, the two documents echo principles stated in John Locke’s â€Å"Second Treatise of Government,† and share a style of expressing their feelings on national issues; the authors examine and give reasons for colonial problems with the government and offer a solution. The tone and audience might vary, but the overall message is similar in its principles, showing the impact Locke and Paine had on such a vital documentRead MoreSimilarities Between Common Sense And The Declaration Of Independence1489 Words   |  6 Pagesand indirectly affected the American Revolution are The Declaration of Independence (July 1776), Thomas Paine’s â€Å"Common Sense† (January 1776), and John Locke’s â€Å"Second Treatise of Government† (1689). All of these documents are related to one another in the fact that they paved the way for the future of America and led to the amazing country we live in today. To start off, there are many similarities in regards to The Declaration of Independence and â€Å"Common Sense†. We can see these documents agreeRead MoreSimilarities Between The Declaration Of Independence And The Declaration Of Independence948 Words   |  4 Pageswithstood the test of time and have become statement pieces for our society. In this group, the Declaration of Independence by Thomas Jefferson and Common Sense by Thomas Paine both hold high positions. Thomas Paine wrote â€Å"The Crisis†, which was a chapter in his pamphlet Common Sense, which advocated that the thirteen original colonies gain independence from Great Britain. The Declaration of Independence was a government document written in 1776 that proclaims America a state of democracy not connectedRead MoreThe s Belief That All Men1295 Words   |  6 Pages On African Slavery by Thomas Paine was available for the public ten months and two days before Common Sense. Despite the difference in publish ing dates these two written works provide numerous similarities. For example, On African Slavery is addressed â€Å"To Americans:† (Paine 1) and Common Sense is similarly â€Å"Addressed to the Inhabitants of America† (1). Furthermore, both written works address Paine’s belief that all men are â€Å"originally equals† (71). In Common Sense, Paine uses this belief to discuss